A Different Kind of Exhibit

When most people go to an exhibit at a museum they may see things like the skeletons of animals, tools from ancient peoples, or even a life size replication of a dinosaur, most people don't plan on seeing an exhibition of preserved human bodies, which is exactly what many museums are doing: displaying human bodies (NPR 2006).

An ad for "Bodies: The Exhibition"

"Bodies: The Exhibition" and other displays similar to it, which describe their exhibition as a "look deep inside the systems of the human body, [the display] offers an intimate and informative view into the human body. The Exhibition allows visitors to see the human body's inner beauty in educational and awe-inspiring ways. [We have] over 200 actual human boides and specimans meticulously dissected and respectfully displayed" (Bodies ... The Exhibition 2014).

People observing an "exhibit" at 'Bodies: The Exhibition'

Many controversies exist surrounding this exhibition of actual human bodies, questions like where did the bodies come from? How were they preserved? Who "owns" these bodies? (NPR 2006)

The author, Mike Pearson describes in his book "The Archaeology of Death and Burial", some of the controversies that have existed throughout the ages about "who owns a body".

 In the chapter "The Politics of the Dead" Pearson states that there "is a genuine desire to protect the dead and to release them from their 'prisons' in museum stores and, for many, this is a moral stance linked to a different understanding of history, in which the past lives on in the present" (Pearson 1999). 

Why do they look like that?

Many exhibits like Bodies are remarkable for the extremely well-preserved nature of their specimens. This is due to a process known as “plastination”, a preservative technique originally devised by Gunther von Hagens in 1977. von Hagens went on to found Body Worlds, the first example of this particular form of exhibit, and he described plastination as a technique that was constantly being refined.

According to von Hagens Body Works website, plastination halts decomposition in treated tissue through “removing water and fats from the tissue and replacing these with polymers”, thus preventing the growth of putrefying bacteria (Body Worlds). The tissue is the impregnated with polymers, posed, and hardened in order to maintain the pose. This process creates a unique and memorable result. According to Bodies, the plastination process is described as producing “a dry, odorless, permanently preserved specimen containing no toxic chemicals. It retains the look of the original, but functions as if it were rubber (Premier Exhibitions, 2014).”

A sample of the process of plastination, also called polymer preservation. 

The flexible nature of human remains treated with the plastination process, combined with the halt to the process of decomposition, allows exhibitions like Bodies, Body World, and others to create visibly engaging sculptures that serve an educational purpose. These exhibits demonstrate the nature of body systems in a somewhat visceral but also an engaging and memorable way.

Ethical Inquiry?
Both Bodies... The Exhibition and Body World have  come under ethical scrutiny. Both exhibits claim to be entirely upfront about their exhibits but the paper trail is questionable. Body Wold CEO claims to only us bodies donated to the Institute for
Plastination (IFP) which is owned and managed by the same corporation that owns the Body World exhibit (NPR 2006).  The IFP has paperwork for the American and European donor bodies and can link that paperwork to death certificates, however each body on display is made anonymous and can not be directly linked back to any paperwork. 
Bodies... The Exhibition uses unclaimed bodies purchased from China, these bodies were not donated but had the status unclaimed (NPR 2006). These bodies have been rumored to be political prisoners or Chinese homeless. Bodies... is upfront about their acquisition process but the questionable means of obtainment still has many institutions wary about hosting this competitor.

Works Cited

"Bodies ... The Exhibition." Bodies ... The Exhibition. Premier Exhibitions, Inc., 2014. Web. 12 Apr. 2015. <http://www.premierexhibitions.com/exhibitions/4/4/bodies-exhibition/learn-more>.

"Origins of Exhibited Cadavers Questioned." NPR. NPR, n.d. Web. 12 Apr. 2015. <http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5637687>.

"The Idea behind Plastination." Plastination. The Plastination Institute, n.d. Web. 16 Apr. 2015.

Pearson, Michael Parker. "Reading the Body." The Archaeology of Death and Burial. College Station: Texas A & M UP, 1999. 57-59. Print

Relatively Reliquary

A relic is a venerated object that belonged to a saint or martyr. The process of exhumation is relevant to the study of relics that originated as the body parts of these saints. According to the New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia, the veneration of relics is a part of the belief structure of several religions. 

Religious relics have been extremely prolific throughout Christian history. According to the Council of Trent, relics were to be venerated because it was argued that saints and martyrs had been raised up by Christ, who could bestow blessings through the relics of these saints. This rested in the argument that the bodies of saints were “Temples of the Holy Ghost”, and therefore eternally sanctified (New Advent). 

The Council went on to prohibit superstitious practices and debauchery that may have resulted from the veneration of these relics. To prevent the abuse of this system, it was specified that a local bishop would be needed to verify any new miracles or approve any new relics.

Many people shy away from the Catholic use of relics in the Church, but these items of holiness, do serve a purpose. According to the official Catholic website, the “mixing of spirit and matter” is necessary to complete spiritual sacraments (Brom 2004). The use of relics is similar to the use of other material things that the Catholic Church uses, such as “water, wine, bread, oil, and even the imposition of hands” (Brom 2004). The use of other holy items such as “medals, blessed palms, holy water, and ashes can lead people to receive or respond to grace” (Brom 2004). 

 Relics in the Catholic Church have been regarded as items that can heal sickness and lead people to believe in the Church (Brom 2004). 

Scriptures of the Bible have described the use of relics, “So Elisha died, and they buried him. Now bands of Moabites used to invade the land in the spring of the year. And as a man was being buried, lo, a marauding band was seen and the man was cast into the grave of Elisha; and as soon as the man touched the bones of Elisha, he revived, and stood on his feet” (2 Kings. 13:20-21).

 

 Depiction of 2 Kings. 13:20-21

Catholics have used relics as early as A.D. 156 when Saint Polycarp was burned at the stake (Brom 2004). The events that took place after his death were described, “We took up his bones, which are more valuable than precious stones and finer than refined gold, and laid them in a suitable place, where the Lord will permit us to gather ourselves together, as we are able, in gladness and joy and to celebrate the birthday of his martyrdom” (Brom 2004).

As the fourth century biblical scholar, Jerome described it, “We do not worship, we do not adore, for fear that we should bow down to the creature rather than the creator, but we venerate the relics of the martyrs in order to better adore him whose martyrs they are” (Brom 2004).

Intense debate surrounds the topic of displaying human remains. But, what about relics, human remains that are holy? Relics are even exempt from laws on the display of remains.

U.K. Human Tissue Act of 2004

While the Catholic Church has rules in place for the display of human remains, including the repatriating of relics taken from overseas (Stumpe 2011), by in large religious institutions are granted permission to display remains without the consent required by modern law. While these remains seem to be legally untouchable it seems that science is not so restrained. 

Recently scientists have carried out DNA and forensic analysis on relics that are claimed to be John the Baptists Bones (Telegraph 2015). 

These remains are still under investigation but so far DNA evidence shows that the bones belonged to a middle eastern man, and have some of the same trauma you would expect from the true bones of John The Baptist. As more evidence is discovered many religious institutions may have the authenticity of their relics challenged with DNA evidence. Which may challenge many beliefs and cause the display and possession of relics to come under ethical scrutiny.  

Works Cited
Brom, Robert H. "Catholic Relics." Official Catholic Website. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Mar. 2015.

Human Tissue Act 2004, § 2 (2004). Print.

"Scientists Find New Evidence Supporting John the Baptist Bones Theory." The Telegraph [UK] 30 Mar. 2015: n. pag. Print.

Stumpe, Lynne Heidi. "DISPLAY AND VENERATION OF HOLY RELICS AT ST WINEFRIDE'S WELL AND STONYHURST." Journal of Museum Ethnography No. 22.Museum Ethnography at Home (2009): 63-81. JSTOR. Web. 30 Mar. 2015.

Thurston, Herbert. "Relics." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 30 Mar. 2015 <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12734a.htm>.

Unwrapped

Are You My Mummy?

Anubis Preparing a Body

Ethics and the Dawn of Egyptology

The burial practices of Ancient Egypt have always captured the attention of curious onlookers, and for good reason. The ritualistic burial practices of the Egyptians are unlike any other in the world. As Mike Parker Pearson describes in the book, “The Archaeology of Death and Burial” mummification was a “complex cultural practice which encompassed a variety of changing attitudes to the body, death, and the cosmos.”

The method of mummification was as complex as the Egyptian’s reasoning for mummification. Pearson describes the myths behind mummification which came from Pyramid Texts of the Old Kingdom (2686 – 2181 BC), Coffin Texts of Middle Kingdom (204 – 1780 BC) and the Book of the Dead from the New Kingdom. These texts describe the judgment of the dead and the Egyptian afterlife, which gives rise to the reasons the Egyptians buried their dead the way they did, through mummification (Pearson 1999). The body was a way that Egyptians could “convey a representation of death and the hereafter” (Pearson 1999).

Egyptian Mummy from the 3rd Century

The mummification process became less and less complex as it went down the social hierarchy. These mummification processes went from “the most perfect” to the “inexpensive method” (Bleiberg 2008). Forty-four Royal Egyptian mummies survived from the New Kingdom; these bodies went through the “most perfect” mummification process, which preserved the body through dehydration and embalming (Bleiberg 2008). These bodies were so carefully preserved because the Egyptian people believed their Royalty to be gods.

Video about the Mummification Process 

It is crucial for modern anthropologists to understand that the development of anthropological ethics was a gradual process, and that methods of inquiry that any modern anthropologist would be horrified by were relatively common in the formative period of the discipline. One particular example of this gradual process of refinement in professional ethics is the concept of an “unwrapping party” or “unrolling party.” These Victorian social events involved the dissection of an Egyptian mummy in front of an audience, and invitations were highly prized (Ancient Origins, 2014).

An invitation to an Unwrapping Party

While these events were intended to further scientific knowledge of the processes involved in the mummification rituals of ancient Egypt, the process was treated as a spectator sport, with shockingly little regard (by modern standards) given to the descendant people of the civilization that had created the mummies. The study of the mummies was constrained by the times, as dissection was simply the only way to get an accurate look at a mummy beneath the bandages . This is no longer the case.

A CT scan of a mummy

Using computed tomography (CT) scanning, modern researchers are able to acquire extremely detailed virtual models of mummies without any dissection involved (Bowdler, 2014). In fact, CT scanning can generate computer models without even removing any wrappings. These detailed models allow for virtual unwrapping, gaining all the insight of the old methods of the unwrapping parties without stumbling into any tricky ethical issues. Mummies can now be thoroughly examined with the utmost respect to both the original remains and the current descendant community in Egypt.

"What a piece of work is man!"

The ethics behind researching and displaying mummies are still under debate today. There are ancient mummified bodies on every continent except for Antarctica. Thus mummy ethics apply to researchers world wide. Informed consent is a ethical question among all researchers (Kaufmann, 2010). In modern medicine the use of someones body for research requires informed consent. With ancient mummies consent is not available. Thus researchers must decide if scientific gain overrides an individuals right to autonomy. Many scientists argue that the information gained by mummy research is invaluable. Research both contributes to the scientific knowledge of ancient peoples and the medical community. 

Some researchers argue that through studying mummies they are protecting them. During study, researchers remove the body and grave goods from the tomb, preventing grave robbing (Balachandran 2009). Yet, many question the right to remove bodies at all. Most cultures regulate the treatment of the dead. For many the removal of a body from its final resting place is unthinkable. But, some cultures may be able to support mummy research. Ancient Egyptians considered a social remembrance after death important (Kaufmann, 2010). Thus, research allows a social renewal of their life. In most cases researchers access damage and gains on a case by case basis. But, as research becomes more sophisticated, many agree that a code for ethical mummy research must be established.

References: 

Balachandran, Sanchita. "Among the Dead and Their Possessions: A Conservator's Role in the Death, Life, and Afterlife of Human Remains and Their Associated Objects." Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 48.3 (2009): 199-222. Jstore. Web. 3 Mar. 2015.

Bleiberg, Edward (2008). To Live Forever: Egyptian Treasures from the Brooklyn Museum. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn Museum. p. 50.

Bowdler, N. (2014, March 20). Egyptian priest digitally unwrapped. Retrieved March 6, 2015, from http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-26664927

Egyptian Mummies – to unwrap or not to unwrap? (2014, May 30). Retrieved March 6, 2015, from http://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-technology/egyptian-mummies-unwrap-or-not-unwrap-001703

Pearson, Michael Parker. "Reading the Body." The Archaeology of Death and Burial. College Station: Texas A & M UP, 1999. 57-59. Print

Kaufmann, I. M., and F. J. Ruhli. "Without 'informed Consent'? Ethics and Ancient Mummy Research." Journal of Medical Ethics 36.10 (2010): 608-13. Jstore. Web. 4 Mar. 2015.